# 1.1. Introduction¶

Data represents information and computations represent data processing, i.e., obtaining new information from what we already know about the world.

An algorithm is any well-defined computational procedure that takes some data value, or a set of values, as input and produces some value, or set of values, as output, always terminating with a result. An algorithm is thus a sequence of computational steps that transform the input data into the output data.

In this course, we will take a look at some of the problems that can be solved by algorithms, learn how to approach challenges that require algorithmic solution, and, most important, will learn how to reason about crucial properties of algorithms: correctness, termination, and complexity.

## 1.1.2. What problems are solved by algorithms?¶

Algorithms describe a problem in a way that it could be implemented as a computer program and solved automatically. You can think of an algorithm as of a description of a procedure that achieves that.

For example, we might need to sort a sequence of numbers in a non-decreasing order. This problem arises frequently in practice and provides fertile ground for introducing many standard design techniques and analysis tools. Here is how we formally define the sorting problem:

• Input: a sequence of numbers a1, a2, …, an.
• Output: a permutation (or, reordering) of the initial sequence b1, b2, …, bn, such that b1 <= b2 <= ... <= bn.

The description above presents a specification of a problem, but does not describe how to come from an input to an output. Indeed, there might be many ways to approach the same specification, and, as a characteristic example, there are multiple algorithms for solving the sorting problem, some of which we will see in this course.

Obviously, sorting sequences is not the only class of problems that can be solved by means of an algorithm. Some other problems include:

• Searching – quickly finding an element satisfying certain requirements in a large collection of other elements. This is a problem frequently appearing in the context of e-commerce (think about searching for a book to buy on Amazon).
• Data compression/decompression – representing an information so it would take the least memory, making it easier to store and transmit, while retaining the ability to restore it without any losses. As an example, think of video and audio encoders and decoders, whose goal is to minimise the size of a file to be streamed, while keeping its high quality.
• Path finding – navigating from a point A to a point B, in a quickest way, given a fixed map.
• Optimisations in manufacturing and other commercial enterprises. For instance, you can think of an algorithm that computes an arrangement of cables allowing to connect a number of call centers in the least expensive way.
• Various geometric problems: for instance, locating the closest facility to one’s position on a map, or installing a set of security cameras in an art gallery in the most efficient way.

Some real-world problems might require multiple algorithms to solve. As instance of such a problem, during the lectures we discussed a room furnishing challenge, in which one need to cover the maximal room surface with furniture. We will discuss more problems of that kind and will learn how to approach them in a class.

## 1.1.3. Data structures¶

Obviously, some of the tasks outlined above can benefit from a data arranged in a more convenient way. For example, if one is interested in finding the largest element in a collection, it would help to have this collection first sorted. As another example, if one wants to represent a map of roads of different length, which is suitable for calculating the shortest paths, it is wise to invest some time into thinking on how to arrange this information to facilitate retrieving the relevant topographical properties.

Data structures are means to organise information in ways that make it conceptually simpler and faster to retrieve the bits we might need in the future. Some of the data structures you have already seen in the past are lists, trees, and arrays. However, more intricate problems will require more sophisticated data structures.

Therefore, one of the goals of this course is to show how to pick a right data structure for a corresponding problem.

## 1.1.4. What is analysis of algorithms?¶

When we solve a problem algorithmically, we need the solution (i.e., an algorithm providing an answer) to satisfy the following hard criteria:

• Correctness: Does the algorithm really do what it’s supposed to do?
• Termination: Does the algorithm terminate for any given input?
• Complexity: Why the algorithm consumes so much resource (time, memory) and how can we improve it?

An algorithm that is simply not correct is not worth much (although the notion of correctness is, as we will see, in the eye of the beholder). An algorithm that does not terminate, but only on very special cases, might be actually useful. Finally, the analysis of computational complexity tells us how slow will be an algorithm in certain cases or how much memory will it consume.

In terms of time consumption, problems that can be solved algorithmically can be themselves partitioned to several classes:

• tractable problems - admit solutions that run in “reasonable” time: sorting, searching, compression/decompression.
• possibly intractable — probably don’t have reasonable-time algorithmic solutions: SAT, graph isomorphism
• practically intractable — definitely don’t have such solutions: the Towers of Hanoi
• non-computable — can’t be solved algorithmically at all: the halting problem

A good programmer should be able to guess correctly whether the problem she is trying to solve algorithmically belongs to one of those classes.

There are two ways to analyse algorithms for correctness, termination and complexity:

• Empirical – repeatedly run algorithm with different inputs to get some idea of behaviour on different sizes of input. This approach is very practical (and we are going to rely on it a lot), but has certain shortcomings:
• Was our selection of inputs representative?
• This process consumes the very resource (time) we are trying to conserve!
• Theoretical – a mathematical analysis of a “paper” version of the algorithm:
• Can deal with all cases (even impractically large input instances);
• Machine-independent;
• Sometimes requires non-trivial mathematical reasoning.